LEARNING

Definition:
Learning is a relatively change in behavior or knowledge, which is a result of experience and not as a consequence of maturation or temporary condition like illness.

Perspectives on Learning
It can be divided into two aspects

• Behavioral: Learning must be observable change in behavior
• Cognitive: Learning is an internal process and cannot be observed directly

Contiguity Learning
This is learning by simple associations: Pairing
Examples:

• Golden Arches = McDonalds
• Times tables
• States & capitals

Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning was described by Povlov with his experiments on dogs. He noticed that whenever food was put in front of dogs, saliva was produced in the mouth. So he started ringing a bell every time food was given. With the passage of time he noticed that whenever he rang the bell (even when food wasn’t served) there was saliva in their mouth. So the response of saliva was conditioned with the bell.
Pavlov’s experiments had following negative effects
Involuntary responses: Respondents started showing responses without stimulation
Generalization: Two different stimuli had the same result
Discrimination:
Extinction: The learned response vanished over time

Skinner’s Experiments:
Skinner, through several experiments, gave a different concept of “Operant Conditioning” that the positive behavior can be strengthened in an individual by negative (punishment) or positive (reward) re-enforcement.

Types of Reinforcement

1. Positive reinforcement

Examples:

• Praise
• Teacher attention
• Rewards

2. Negative reinforcement

• Avoid the loss of privileges
• Take away an aversive stimulus

Types of Punishment

1. Presentation Punishment

• Detention
• Extra work

2. Removal Punishment

• Loss of recess
• Loss of privileges

Applied Behavior Analysis

• Also called “Behavior modification”
• Not always negative
• Baseline measurement--ABAB
• Classroom application:
• - Specify the desired behavior
• - Plan a specific intervention
• - Keep track of the results

Interventions:
It is Encouraging Positive Behavior

• Teacher attention

• Praise & ignore
• “Accentuate the positive” (Premack principle)
• Incentives and Disincentives

More ways to encourage positive behavior

• Shaping (Successive approximations)
• Reinforcing each small step
• Task analysis (R.B. Miller)
• Krumboltz and Krumboltz
• reinforce each subskill
• reinforce improvements
• reinforce longer and longer periods of performance

           
Shaping may take longer than simpler methods such as cueing

• Positive practice
• Correct errors as soon as possible

Coping with Undesirable Behaviors

• Not considered punishment
• Reinforces behaviors
• Gives students control (Satiation)
• Insist students to continue behavior until they are tired of doing it (“Those are wonderful paper airplanes, would you please make me 1000 of them right now.”)
• Reprimands (scolding): soft & private
• Some students enjoy public recognition (Response cost)
• First time breaking rule: warning
• Second time: loss of privilege: 2 minutes off recess
• Social isolation
• “Time out”
• Student placed in uninteresting room alone

Note:

• Punishment does not lead to any positive behavior
• First goal: suppress undesirable behavior
• Second goal: make clear positive behavior and reinforce.

Guidelines

• Structure situation so you use negative reinforcement rather than punishment
• Be consistent
• Focus on students’ actions, not on personal qualities
• Adapt the punishment to the infraction

Factors in Social Learning

• Developmental level of learner
• Status & prestige of the model
• Vicarious consequences
• Outcome expectations
• Goal setting
• Self-efficacy

Observational Learning in Teaching

• Modeling
• Encourage already learned behaviors
• Strengthening / weakening inhibitions
• Directing attention
• Arousing emotions

Self-Regulation and Cognitive Behavior Modification

• Self management
• Set goals and make the goals public
• Note: Standards and effect on performance
• Evaluate & record performance
• Promote self-reinforcement

• Cognitive Behavior Modification

• Similar to Self-regulated learning
• Adds thinking and self-talk
• More cognitive than behavioral approach